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Asiatic Citrus Canker Xanthomonas axonopodis Dowson -- Xanthomonadales:
Xanthomonadaceae |
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Strains
of Xanthomonas axonopodis pv.
citri vary in aggressiveness, but typically cause raised, corky lesions on
fruit, stems, and leaves. Under
conditions favorable to the pathogen, severe branch die back and even death
of trees can occur. In most cases,
younger leaves are considered to be most susceptible to infection, and damage
caused by citrus leaf miner larvae (Phyllocnistis
citrella) can be sites for infection to occur. Within a controlled laboratory setting,
symptoms can appear in 14 days following inoculation into a susceptible host.
In the field environment, the time for symptoms to appear and be clearly
discernible may be on the order of several months after infection. Lower temperature prolongs appearance of
the disease. Citrus canker bacteria
can stay viable in old lesions and other plant surfaces for several
months. The drier conditions of
California are generally considered to be less conducive to the establishment
and spread of bacterial diseases such as citrus canker, which depend on
wind-driven rain and high humidity for initial infection. But, University of California researchers
recently discovered an avocado branch and trunk canker disease caused by
another strain of Xanthomonas that
is widespread in coastal counties of California. This demonstrates that bacterial diseases of this type can
persist in our climate on subtropical tree crops. Between
1915 and 1933, more than $6 million was spent in Florida alone on the first
eradication effort for citrus canker in the southeastern United States. In the more recent eradication effort in
the 1980s, over 20 million trees were burned in Florida at a cost of nearly
$94 million. The bacterium is spread
locally by wind-driven rain. In
Florida, over 16 million trees have been destroyed in an attempt to eradicate
the disease after the current outbreak started in 1995. It is now in 24 counties resulting in the
entire state being placed under a USDA quarantine which prohibits shipment of
citrus from Florida to any citrus-producing states. The 2004-05 hurricanes spread the disease so far that in 2006,
the USDA determined that eradication is no longer possible and ceased the
tree removal program. To protect from
potential loss of citrus quality and productivity regulatory restrictions
should be applied on the shipment of fruit from regions infested with citrus
canker. REFERENCES: Bock, C .H., P. E. Parker & T. R. Gottwald. 2005.
The effect of simulated wind-driven rain on duration and distance of dispersal
of Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri from canker infected citrus
trees. Plant Disease. 89: 71-80. Cubero, J., J. H. Graham, T. Gottwald & T.
Riley. 2000. Quantitative PCR method for the diagnosis
of citrus bacterial canker. Applied
and Environmental Microbiology 67:
2849-2852. Gottwald, T. R., J. H. Graham & D. S. Egel. 1992. Analysis of foci of infection of Asiatic
citrus canker in a Florida citrus orchard.
Plant Disease 76: 389-396. Gottwald, T. R., T. R. Graham & T. S.
Schubert. 1997. An epidemiological analysis of the spread
of citrus canker in urban Miami, Florida, and synergistic interaction with
the Asian citrus leafminer. Fruits
52: 383-390. Gottwald, T. R., J. H. Graham & T. S. Schubert. 2002. Citrus Canker: The pathogen and its
impact. Plant Health Progress 2002. Gottwald, T. R., G. Hughes, J. H. Graham, X. Sun
& T. Riley. 2001. The citrus canker epidemic in Florida –
the scientific basis of regulatory/eradication policy for an invasive plant
pathogen. Phytopathology 91:
30-34. Gottwald, T. R., X. Sun, T. D. Riley, J. H. Graham,
F. Ferrandino & E. L. Taylor.
2001. Geo-Referenced,
Spatiotemporal Analysis of the Urban Citrus Canker Epidemic in Florida. Phytopathology 92: 361-377. Gottwald T. R & L. W. Timmer. 1994. The efficacy
of windbreaks in reducing the spread of citrus canker caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. citri.
Tropical Agriculture 72: 194-201. Graham, J. H. & T. R. Gottwald. 1997.
Research perspectives on eradication of citrus bacterial diseases in
Florida. Plant Dis. 75: 1193-1200. Graham, J. H., T. R. Gottwald, J. Cubero & D.
Achor. 2004. Xanthomonas axonopodus
pv. citri: Factors affecting
successful eradication of citrus canker.
Molecular Plant Pathology
5: 1-15. Graham, J. H., T. R. Gottwald, T. D. Riley, & M.
A. Bruce. 1992. Susceptibility of citrus fruit to
bacterial spot and citrus canker.
Phytopathology 82: 452-457. Leite Jr., R. P. & S. K. Mohan. 1990.
Integrated management of citrus bacterial canker disease caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. citri in the state of Paraná,
Brazil. Crop Protection 9: 3-7. Reedy, B. C.
1984. Incidence of bacterial
canker of citrus in relation to weather.
Geobios New Reports 3: 39-41. Schubert, T .S., J. W. Miller, & D. W. Gabriel. 1996. Another outbreak of bacterial canker of
citrus in Florida. Plant Dis. 80: 1208. Schubert, T. S., S. A. Rizivi, X. Sun, T. R. Gottwald, J.
H. Graham & W. N. Dixon. 2001. Meeting the challenge of eradicating
citrus canker again in Florida. Plant
Disease 85: 340-356. Stall, R. E. & E. L. Civerolo. 1991.
Research relating to the recent outbreak of citrus canker in
Florida. Annual Rev. Phytopathol. 29:
399-420. Sun, X., R. E. Stall, J. Cubero, T. R. Gottwald, J. H.
Graham, W. N. Dixon, T. S. Schubert, P. H. Chaloux, J. B. Jones, V. K.
Stromberg, G. H. Lacy & B. D.
Sutton. 2001. Detection and characterization of a new
strain of citrus canker bacteria from key/Mexican lime and alemow in
Florida. Plant Disease 88: 1179-1188. Verniere, C. J., T. R. Gottwald & O.
Pruvost. 2002. Disease development and symptom expression
of Xanthomonas campestris pv. citri in various citrus plant
tissues. Phytopathology 93:
832-843 Wilson, M., S. S.
Hirano & S. E. Lindow. 1999. Location and
survival of leaf-associated bacteria in relation to pathogenicity and potential for growth within the
leaf. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.
65: 1435-1443. |
